The unification of India in 265 CE under the Mauryan Dynasty developed Hinduism through legal texts called the Dharma Sutras, the most important of which was the Laws of Manu.

The Dharma sutra texts emphasized the concept of order or Dharma. Dharma is the way things are in the universe, the truth of things. In Hinduism it also becomes associated with duty: how you should act in order to be in harmony with the truth of things. The concept of order was important in the earliest Vedas, and was personalized as the god Varuna, the keeper of order. Varuna had the duty of punishing those humans who violated order, as well as maintaining order in the universe. One of the most important contributions of the Laws of Manu was to establish a system in which a person could achieve spiritual goals while still being part of society. In other words, both individual goals and the goal of an orderly society could be satisfied.

Dharma was related to the teachings of karma and rebirth. A person’s actions or karma from previous lives determined the circumstances of their birth in the present life. Everyone was born into a particular place in society that was associated with particular duties. Performing these duties would maintain order in the society and in one’s own life.

The Laws of Manu c. 200 BCE – 200 CE explains the dharma of individuals based on

• the class into which a person is born: varna
• the life-stage of the person: ashrama
• the duties of class and life-stage: dharma

Class or Varna

A birth class of a person is determined by actions in a previous lifetime. In the narrative of the sacrifice of the Purusha from the Rig Veda, the body of this primordial person becomes the universe and also forms the four classes of human beings:

• Mouth of Purusha ==> Priestly class: Brahmin
• Arms of Purusha ==> Ruling and Warrior class: Ksatriya
• Thighs of Purusha ==> Producers: farmers, merchants, craftspeople: Vaisya
• Feet of Purusha ==> Servants: Shudra

The first three classes, priest, warrior, and producers, are called the twice born because males in that class undergo a ceremony of initiation and are permitted to study the Vedas and perform sacrifices. The servant class may not study the Vedas. Their duty is to serve the upper three classes.

Life Stage or Ashrama

Life stage has to do with development in the present life. At each age, a person must perform the duties of that life stage. The four stages of a single life are: Student, Householder, Forest dweller, Wanderer.

Student

In the early years of childhood a person remains in the family. After initiation a young person becomes a student and must perform the duties of that life-stage. Initiation is at age 8 for those in the priestly class; at age 12 for those in the ruling and producing classes. Girls were not permitted to study the Veda at the time that the Laws of Manu were written. At the initiation ceremony the boy receives a sacred thread which he wears over his left shoulder and across to the right side of his torso. This is the sign of his initiation into the Vedic study.

As a student, he helps his teacher and studies the Vedas, learning the rituals and the movements associated with the chants. This period lasts twelve years. Those in the second and third classes would also receive training in the duties of their class.

Householder

The Laws of Manu emphasize that this is the most important stage of life because the householder sustains society with his productive activities. The life of a householder begins with marriage. For women, marriage was considered to be equivalent to the male initiation ceremony.

A householder is expected to support the rest of society, produce children, and perform the sacrifices relevant to his class. In this way he served society, his family, and the gods.

Forest Dweller

When a householder had performed his duty to society and his family by producing and raising his family to the householder stage, he and his wife were free to pursue religious goals. In other words, they could retire from an active life in society.

At the time that the Laws of Manu were written, this phase was described as a retreat into a quiet area, living together, performing sacrifices, and studying the Veda. Usually they lived celibate lives, concentrated on religious matters. For most people, this period of retirement would be the final stage, but for those who wished to go further, there was one more stage.

Wanderer

In this final stage, a person would take a final ritual in which he would renounce all his ties with the world. This included his wife and family. He would vow not to harm any creature, and would not be part of society. He would also offer up his sacred thread to the gods. Wearing simple clothes and carrying a begging bowl, the wanderer concentrates on reaching final knowledge of his identity with Brahman, the unitary principle of the universe. Notice that the wanderer is no longer part of the class system.

Summary of Varna-ashrama-dharma

The four classes and the four life stages (varna-ashrama-dharma) combine to create an ideal of the spiritual life. As you think about these categories, remember that they are prescriptive: they tell you how life should be lived. They provide an ideal. They are not descriptive: they do not tell you how everyone actually lived. Another point is that the system emphasizes right practice or orthopraxy more than right belief, orthodoxy.

Another way that Hinduism describes the structure of life is to say that there are four goals of human life:

• Dharma, duty required by birth class and stage of life;
• Artha, the accumulation of wealth and success in life;
• Kama, the pursuit of sexual pleasure and love in life;
• Moksha, the achievement of liberation from the round of samsara by realizing the unity of atman and Brahman.

These four goals map onto the four stages of life. Dharma is satisfied in the first three stages of life. Wealth and love are achieved in the life of the householder. Finally, liberation may be achieved either as a forest dweller or as a wanderer. The texts that deal with each of these four goals are very detailed and reveal a great deal about how people understood life. The system of classes and life stages and their associated duties and the four goals created a stable environment for individual growth, social cohesiveness and above all, order.

Ritual and Material Culture in Hinduism: Puja

Many Hindus perform puja, which is ritual worship of a deity. The ritual of puja involves many of the seven dimensions of religion.

Puja can be performed in temples, or in household shrines. Some puja are simple with only a few steps, and some are more elaborate with many steps, depending on the type of puja performed. Most puja is a hospitality ritual, offering the god the same things you might offer to a guest in your home.

The puja begins with an invocation, a spoken verse or chant by which the devotee invites the deity to join the puja. The devotee offers the god a seat, then offers water for ritual washing of feet and hands and for drinking. Then the devotee offers fresh clothing and a sacred thread. All these ritual actions treat the deity as if it were a guest. The image may then be offered sweet smelling paste such as sandalwood, flowers, incense, light, food, or a gift. Incense symbolizes fire and purification of the air.

Cooked vegetarian food and fruit may also be offered to the deity. The items offered in a puja ceremony vary depending on the narrative of the deity being worshiped. For example, coins are traditionally offered for the worship of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. Whatever is given to the deity will be returned in blessings to the devotee: therefore what you give is what you receive. Finally, the devotee bows to the deity, and sometimes circles around the image, completing the puja.

Puja is performed by those who follow the bhakti path. It is meant to produce a feeling of love towards the deity. By being completely absorbed in love, the personal ego is dissolved and eventually liberation is attained. Therefore, puja is a ritual that produces an intense experience of adoration in the hearts of devotees. Along with the narrative and material dimension, the ritual and experiential dimension exist in a typical puja.