Funerals and memorial rituals in traditional Chinese cultures involve ideas and practices from the three major religions of China: Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. The fundamental goal of these rituals is to fulfill the duties of filial piety, or devotion to parents. As we have seen in this chapter, concern for the happiness of the deceased is supported by the belief that your ancestors can be a source of blessings. If these rituals are not done properly, however, the spirit of the deceased may turn restless and remain on earth, causing problems.

The funeral ritual and the continuing memorial offerings are important events in the life of the family that help to bind its members together. In this discussion of Chinese funerals we will look at the Confucian and Daoist elements that are blended in the funeral ritual.

Preparing for death

Around the age of 50 or 60, when a person is nearing the end of life, he or she prepares for death by assembling the material goods and arrangements for the funeral. There are special white clothes called “longevity clothes,” a coffin, and a burial plot that must follow the geographical yin–yang principles called feng-shui. These preparations are not only for peace of mind, but are also a way for the father or mother to express their care for their sons and daughters by preparing for their own funeral as much as they can.

Material Culture, Confucian social hierarchy and ethics in funerals

Instructions for the funeral rites are found in ancient texts, especially Ceremonial and Ritual, a text that Confucius studied carefully. These instructions are very detailed and explain the duties of five different levels of mourners based on the closeness of the family connection.

The eldest son has the closest relationship, so he and his wife must follow detailed rules that control what they eat, how they dress and how long they must mourn. The following instructions show how strict the mourning rules were in the most ancient texts. A son would follow these rules for the death of a father, feudal lords would follow them for the death of the ruler, and a father would follow them for the death of his own heir.

Rules for Mourning: When the person dies, the eldest son and his wife wash the body. The son puts on the longevity clothes that his parent had prepared, but he wears them inside out, as a way to offer his own body to the deceased. He also takes a meal of noodles to help the spirit of his parent gain strength. The son then dresses the body in the longevity clothes.

The eldest son is expected to do three years of mourning, wearing very simple garments with no trimming. In the first year, the son should live in a booth that leans against the main house, sleeping on straw and crying out his grief. When the funeral has put the spirit of his parent to rest, he is allowed to cut a window and door into the hut and take more food, crying out only once in the morning and at night. He is allowed to put a mat over his straw bed.

In the second year, he can wear a soft cloth hat and he has better food, including vegetables and fruit. He still lives apart in a special structure, although it is better built than the first hut. In the Analects, Confucius records a discussion about whether one year of complete mourning would be enough. The argument for just one year is practical: if the nobility goes into mourning for three years after the death of a ruler, then who will perform the state rituals? After the discussion, Confucius says to his follower Yu, “Only after a child is three years old does it leave its parents’ arms; and therefore the three year mourning is observed everywhere under Heaven. Didn’t Yu also have the the three year love of his parents?” (Adapted from Thompson 1996 49; Analects XVII. 21).

Daoist Performance, experience and the supernatural in funerals

We have just seen how Confucian teachings describe the filial duties of the eldest son. The funeral itself, depending on the wealth of the family, can be a very elaborate ritual that goes on for a number of days. An important goal of the funeral ritual is to satisfy the spirit of the deceased. For this part of the ritual, a Daoist priest performs the role of a guide to the underworld, helping the spirit overcome many barriers and gain the help of the supernatural beings in the after-world. The Chinese view of the after-world mirrors life on earth with various officials who must be bribed and persuaded to let the spirit through. The Daoist priest does not simply recite scriptures. He is trained to communicate with the spirits. Part of the funeral is a dramatic performance that depicts bringing the deceased through hell safely.

During the funeral services the deceased is represented by a paper strip about 3 x 12 inches long with the secret name of the deceased and other information written on it. This strip of paper, called the “soul silk,” is regarded as the home base of the spirit during the funeral. The soul silk is given offerings of paper “money” and food, is carried around to various locations, always treated with great respect. From the internal view, the spirit is undergoing a journey through the underworld with the Daoist priest always there to guide and negotiate with the spirits.

The following is an example of the visit to hell conducted by the Daoist priest. This is taken from an account of a funeral ceremony observed in 1980 in Tainan, Taiwan by John Lagerwey. During this part of the funeral, the family of the deceased sits in a group around a model of a fortress that guards the spirit silk. There is a wash basin and a change of clothing set out so that the spirit can bathe and change after going through hell. The psychological function of this part of the performance is to both rescue the spirit from hell, but also to allow the spirit to take leave of the living family on earth. It is an exorcism of the spirit so that it will not return to haunt the family in the future, but will live in the spirit world happily, sending benefits to the family. After introducing himself and his credentials through a song, the Daoist priest physically mimics a journey to hell. At the end of the song he states:

I hear before me very distinctly the sound of drum and gongs. This must be the Gate of the Demons in the fortress of the underworld. I will hide to one side and see what hour they are announcing.

There is a great burst of percussion, which ends with drumbeats and gong announcing that it is midnight. This leads the priest to sing another song:

The first watch has been drummed. The drum has been beat in the drum tower. Man lives a bare hundred years, A hundred years that pass like a distant dream. Begin to practice early; Do not wait until it is too late.

[After some further actions, the priest rouses the guardian of the gate.]

Priest explains to audience: I have received instructions from King Yama to guard the Demon Gate. A little devil has just come in and reported that the soul of someone who has died is knocking loudly at our gate. As it is a lucky day and the night is clear, it must be a good man or a faithful woman from the world of the living who wishes to pass through my gate.Priest: Hurry and open up.

Demon: Who is knocking so loud on my door at this hour?

Priest: It is me, the priest of marvelous Movement from the Mountain of the Great Net.

Demon: Why is the priest on his mountain not studying the way, reciting scriptures, picking medicinal plants, and refining the liquid of immortality?

(Adapted from deBary 2000, 86-88).

Their conversation continues as the priest explains that he has come with instructions from the Ancestors of the Dao to save the spirit of this person. The demon negotiates with the priest, asking for a bribe and refusing to open the gate when the priest claims that he has no money. The discussion turns to a debate about metaphysics. The “play” enacted in the midst of the funeral acts both as an emotional release for the relatives who observe it, but it also has a teaching function. The traditional Chinese funeral has elements of both Confucianism and Daoism in it, blended seamlessly to serve those who are grieving for their parents. The drama enacted in the midst of the funeral service helps the survivors release the spirit of their relative and allow him or her to enter the after-world of the ancestors.