Religion is one of the oldest forms of human expression. It influences the language and customs of cultures across the globe. Religious ideals help shape meaning for human life, providing individuals and society with moral structures and inspiration about ultimate reality. While religions often develop within one culture, when they are adopted by a different culture they often change and acquire new features. Religions of the world, therefore, frequently show the influence of different cultures.

Religion and Diversity

In the sixteenth century European explorers and missionaries encountered religious ideas and practices that were different from their own faith. They discovered cultures that were clearly ethical, but did not rely on the teachings of Christianity. For example, in China, they discovered an advanced civilization that challenged their ideas of the superiority of Western societies. They began to ask, “what is religion?”

At the same time, the Christian world was beginning to be torn apart by religious wars over theology and political power that were set in motion in Europe by the Protestant Reformation. These conflicts led some people to consider whether there was a simpler, more universal form of religion.

Scientific Study of Religion and “Natural Religion”

A deeper questioning of the notion of religion took hold during the Enlightenment and the scientific advances of the Industrial Revolution. Some thinkers began to wonder whether there was some form of “natural religion” shared by all religions that could be studied scientifically.

This search for the broad characteristics of a natural religion led to the idea that a scientific study of the phenomena of religion would reveal these basic principles of religion. A researcher could determine fundamental religious principles through a rigorous scientific study. Instead of religion and science being opposed, science would discover more universal values of religion.

The discipline of the study of religion began with the discovery of religious and cultural diversity, but the idea of finding out the basic principles of all religions became a strong motivation for many of the early theorists. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there were several important thinkers who investigated the origin of religion. Their studies of the origins and function of religion in different societies became the basis for fields of intellectual study in contemporary intellectual life: The founders of the fields of anthropology, psychology, and sociology all investigated how religion had shaped human individuality, culture, and society. Here are some of the major themes and approaches of these early studies of religion.

The Origins of Religion in Human Culture: Anthropology

E.B. Tylor (1832-1917) is regarded as an early pioneer of anthropology, the study of culture. Tylor argued that religion began with human perceptions of an invisible world of spirits and gods that shaped human culture and the natural world. This idea, which he called “animism” came from two common beliefs: first, the idea that an invisible essence leaves the body at the moment of death; and second, that dreams and visions are connected with a higher reality that affects our lives.

Tylor developed a theory of the origins of religion based on his study of contemporary societies in rural areas of the world that had not yet been modernized. His hypothesis was that by studying these more “primitive” societies we could come closer to the origins of religion. Today anthroplogists focus instead on the lived experience of religion within the context of specific cultures.

Religion as Individual and Collective Experience: Psychology

Rudolf Otto (1869-1937) argued that religion begins with an experience of the holy or sacred that was beyond ordinary human experience, nonrational and cannot be expressed fully in language or any other way. He argued that this experience of the sacred was unique. In order to understand religion, a person must first have this transformative experience. Otto based his analysis of religion on the idea that those who have experienced the sacred have an authority within the religion. Although the experience of the sacred was non-rational, it was in fact the basis for understanding the universe. Otto based his theory on the premise that the feelings of this experience created our understanding of faith, ethics, and other truths of human life. Think about the effect of such a theory of religion. Is it inclusive? Whom does it exclude?

William James (1842-1910) developed the idea of religion as individual experience in a more systematic way. One of the first to offer lectures in the new field of psychology, James is well-known for his series of lectures on religion published in 1902 as Varieties of Religious Experience. A pragmatic philosopher, James suggested that in order to understand religion, we should study individual experience of religion rather than religious institutions. This study of how individuals experience religion, including ecstatic states of strong emotion would help us see the human patterns within religion. Although not everyone has such experiences, he was convinced that the ordinary experiences associated with religion had the power to develop human potential.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), considered by many to be the founder of psychology, saw religion as primarily a psychological phenomenon that had to do with the development of the individual. Freud’s theory of psychology depends on the idea that we experience a sense of inadequacy and lack of control that begins with desires that cannot be fulfilled. As children, we focus on our parents as the source of strength and comfort, but this in itself produces desires that extend into our adult life. Human societies also compensate for their frustrated desires by depending on religion. Freud’s view was that an individual who had overcome the circumstances of frustrated desires to fully mature would no longer “need” religion. As human societies grow and develop, religion would eventually disappear.

Religion as an Expression of Human Culture: Economics and Sociology

Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a German philosopher and economist who analyzed the role of economic and social structures in shaping human life. His principle concern was inequality: the upper classes control the means of production which are supported by the work of the lower classes. This simple structure produces inequality between the classes by putting access to goods into the hands of the upper classes and oppressing the potential of lower classes. The tension between the classes would inevitably produce resistance. Religion is part of the social structure that allows the upper classes to claim the right to possession of the means of production while giving psychological relief to the lower classes in the form of a promise of a better future. For this reason, Marx claimed that religion is “the opium of the people” because while it eased their suffering, it also prevented them from seeing the truth of their oppression.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), considered to be the founder of sociology, theorized that religion was primarily social. In contrast to William James, who focused on the individual’s experience of religion, Durkheim looked at how religious ideas and institutions shaped society, using empirical evidence to support his claims. Durkheim’s definition of religion illustrates his position. He argued that religion is:

a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden — beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them.

In this definition, the sacred is defined by a particular culture as special and separate from ordinary life. The beliefs and practices directed at the sacred create a sense of community and emotional connection among the participants. This collective experience is the foundation for a moral community which Durkheim labels as a “Church” but could easily be applied to any religious institution.

The Contemporary Study of Religion

This brief outline of the pioneer theorists illustrate several points about the study of religion. In the contemporary academic study of religion, we include the following perspectives:

• Religion has shaped individual and cultural contexts: the study of religion is vital to understanding the human mind and society.
• Religions are internally diverse and can accommodate various perspectives.
• Religions may share similar structures of worship and practice, but it is important to understand these practices within the context of doctrines and historical continuity.

Many people think that when you study religion you must be studying theology: the study of the divine. Theology is focused on a particular view of the divine held by one religion. When it considers other religions, it evaluates them based on that view. The goal of theological studies is to prepare leaders for a specific religious tradition. A theologian’s definition of religion, therefore, is bound up with the world view of a particular religion.

The contemporary academic study of religion at the university is not theological. It is descriptive and analytical. Describing religious beliefs and actions clearly without judging them is one of the skills of the researcher. In order to understand how religious beliefs and actions work within specific cultures the researcher will use various tools. Seeing the World through Religion and Culture provides some of these tools that can guide that research.