Daoism is a system of Chinese thought and attitudes that are based on a text, the Laozi or as it was called later, The Way and its Power (Daodejing). The Laozi is a collection of sayings from teachers during the Warring States Period.

The Laozi discusses the nature of the Dao. As we saw earlier in this chapter, the Dao is the source of all being. Yin and yang show the movement of the Dao, and that heaven acts in relationship to earth and human beings. The Laozi describes the Dao in different ways, sometimes mystical and sometimes practical. The main theme of the text is the Dao, but its real purpose is to show how a ruler should act. Discussions of the ideal government and its relationship to the people show how the text is a product of its environment: the political upheaval of the Warring States Period in the fifth century BCE. The Laozi provides a solution to government that is quite different from the Analects of Confucius.

Another important text which helped to define Daoist ideas is the writings of Zhuangzi (369-319 BCE). His collection, called the Zhuangzi has similar attitudes towards the Dao as the Laozi, but there are important differences that make it unlikely that he was the author of both books.

Both the Laozi and the Zhuangzi discuss the ideal human. In Confucian thought, the ideal human develops relationships with others, studies history and music and poetry and refines his understanding. In Daoism the picture of the ideal human is quite different. These texts give a picture of the sage or wise person as someone who is not active in the world, who withdraws into nature, and develops his mind and body through meditation and careful diet. The ideal is to become an immortal, one who is unaffected by disease and the weakness of old age.

Daoists became interested in transformation of the body and mind so that they would become immortal. This interest was stimulated by the arrival of Buddhism in China during the first century CE. Buddhists also meditated, although their purpose was for enlightenment, not immortality. Daoists were interested in the techniques of concentration that Buddhists had developed.

By the second century CE, Daoism had evolved into a religion with three distinct approaches:

• Literati Daoism is based on studying and discussing the early texts such as the Laozi, the Zuangzhi and other historical texts. Those who practice literati Daoism are mainly concerned with understanding what the texts mean and applying these philosophic positions to their own lives. The goals of literati Daoists are close to the original thinkers since they see their study as leading toward world peace and harmony between the state and the people.
• Communal Daoism refers to groups organized with priests who conduct rituals, pray to the gods, and perform initiations. To an outside observer, communal Daoism seems like a church. Like Literati Daoism they follow the ideas of the early Daoist teachings, but they are more involved with performing rituals for life events such as weddings and funerals. Their priests belong to lineages of teachers who are thought to have passed down the teachings of specific Daoist sages. Communal Daoism created a cosmology populated with various gods and spirits. The priest is viewed as one who is capable of contacting the gods and the spirits of deceased. These gods of the after-world could lead the newly deceased to a satisfying restful state if they received the correct rituals and offerings. so their services are highly valued in funeral ceremonies. Although communist China banned many of the most dramatic rituals during the 20th century, Taiwan continued these practices.
• Self-cultivation Daoism involves meditation, control of the diet, and spiritual development in order to gain physical and mental peace and long life. These practices can focus on developing oneness with the Dao, or through visions and guidance from the gods. Their organizations tend not to be political. Instead, the close relationship between the Daoist master and his students is the focus of the practice. The master usually belongs to a particular teaching lineage that has its own meditation and dietary practices. Self-cultivation Daoism contributed to early Chinese ideas about the body and medicine.

Daoist groups often competed with Buddhist and Confucian groups for influence in the government. Historically, rulers sided with any one of these three, temporarily elevating them to great power. China avoided becoming a theocracy, a system in which one religious ideology dominates. Instead, rulers generally tried to play these three religions against each other, balancing out their favors so that none of the three became dominant for too long. Since Chinese history is filled with incidents in which religious groups became powerful revolutionary movements, Chinese rulers were always careful about favoring one religious group over another.

Cosmology of Daoism

Cosmology in the Laozi emphasizes two main points:

1. Dao is the sacred principle inherent in nature.
2. Everything in the world is produced by universal Dao so all nature has inherent harmony and balance.

Dao means “road” or “path,” a guide or teaching. The word “Dao” worked on two different levels. First, the cosmic: Dao is the way the world works, a natural law of the universe. Second, Dao can also be teachings about humanity and ethics, including how to be a good ruler and a good citizen.

As we can see in the Laozi, the cosmic Dao takes different names that indicate its mysterious character: the nameless, the ancestor, the mysterious female, the spirit of the valley. At the same time, the Dao cannot be defined by any one characteristic or name. The Dao itself is empty, which is how it is useful. As Daoist texts point out, a bowl is useful because it is empty.

Seven Dimensions of Religion in Daoism

Narrative and Experience in Daoism

The Laozi is a collection of writings about the Dao. The word “laozi” means “old one” or sometimes is translated as “old baby”. It is not clear, though, whether there was actually an individual named Laozi who wrote this text. The figure of Laozi falls somewhere between history and legend. Today, most scholars of Daoism agree that there was no single person who can be called the author of the work or be considered the “founder” of Daoism.

A biography about a mysterious figure named “Laozi” or “Lao Dan” appeared in 104 BCE in the Record of the Historian by Sima Qian. This record was not strictly factual history because it included stories and legends. Sima Qian included biographies of important people, including Confucius. The Record of the Historian tells a story about Confucius meeting “Laozi” who criticized him. What does this mean? Is it proof that Laozi actually existed? According to scholars, there were a number of such anti-Confucius stories that appeared in Daoist texts. Although these stories tell us is that such legends were popular, they do not prove that there was an individual named “Laozi”.

The legends are all the more powerful because they present an ideal follower of the Dao without being concerned with the natural personality and actions of a living human being. Laozi as a legendary figure can be an image of a perfect Daoist sage. The legends of Laozi, his lack of concern with the world, and his “immortality,” the idea that he might be still alive out there somewhere, provide an ideal for Daoist religion, especially as “self-cultivation.”

Legends claim that Laozi was conceived 62 years before Confucius. His mother was supposed to have given birth leaning against a tree and that he spoke when he was born. His hair was already white so he was called “old Master” or “old baby.” He was believed to have lived to 160 years, but after his career in government service he decided to withdraw from society. He set out for the mountains to live out his life. When he reached the border outpost, the guard encouraged him to write down his wisdom. This is the legendary origin of the two part text of the Laozi. The following image shows a sculpture of “Laozi” as a massive boulder in the landscape. It appears to be part of the natural environment, yet it has a human appearance.

Doctrines and Ethics of Daoism

The Laozi

In the Laozi, the Dao is the sacred principle of nature. Everything in the world is produced by universal Dao, so all phenomena are in balance and naturally harmonious. The Dao takes different names: ancestor, mystical female, spirit of the valley and the one. The following verses from the Laozi show how these qualities of yin are valued:

The spirit of the valley never dies.
This is called the mysterious female.
The gateway of the mysterious female
Is called the root of heaven and earth.
Dimly visible, it seems as if it were there,
Yet use will never drain it.
(Adapted from Lau 1963, 10).

Humans must become one with Dao by following the path of non-action, wu wei, and withdrawing from the world. In one of the verses on government the Laozi advises the best way to improve the state:

Take no action and the people are transformed by themselves.
Prefer stillness and the people become straightforward by themselves.
Do not interfere and the people become prosperous by themselves.
Be free from desire and the people by themselves become simple, like the uncarved block.
(Adapted from Lau 1963, 64).

The ideas of Daoism contrast with the Confucian emphasis on human life. From a Daoist point of view, human culture, laws, and customs seem artificial and structured. The Daoist idea is to achieve real harmony by withdrawing from social structures. Only then can you experience the natural rhythms of universe, the Dao. The opening lines of the Laozi give a feeling for the mystery of the Dao:

The way (Dao) that can be spoken of
Is not the unchanging way.
The name that can be named
Is not the unchanging name.
The nameless was the beginning of heaven and earth.
The named was the mother of the myriad creatures.
So always rid yourself of desires in order to observe the secret of the Dao.
But always allow yourself to have desires in order to observe the appearance of the Dao.
These two are the same
But are different in name as they appear.
Being the same they are called mysteries
Mystery upon mystery
The gateway of the manifold secrets (Adapted from Lau 1963, 5)

Zhuangzi (369-286 BCE)

Zhuangzi, a teacher who lived during the fourth century BCE, was aware of both Confucian and Daoist teachings about the ideal human being, and how to run a government that would create a peaceful and prosperous society. In his view, civilization had corrupted human hearts and destroyed harmonious relations between the people and the cosmos. He believed that humans should develop what he called the “fasting of the heart” or emptying oneself. He saw life and death as different stages of transformation.

Zhuangzi wrote dialogues and stories, quite different from the Laozi which makes statements about the Dao without showing human interaction. In one famous example, Zhuangzi wonders about his own existence:

Once Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He did not know he was Zuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he did not know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamed he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi. (Sommer 1995, 81)

In this passage, Zuangzi explores ideas about identity and consciousness. Who are we when we dream? Who are we when we wake up? If all things are simply the movement of the Dao, then what difference is there between a human and a butterfly?

Anthropology, and Soteriology in Daoism

Anthropology of Daoism

Daoist teachings take the view that a person can understand the cosmic Dao through meditation and cultivation that goes beyond ordinary human perceptions and activities. Humans must become one with Dao by following the path of non-action (wu wei). Even a person who is fully engaged with the world can act and lead others through non-action and by staying in harmony with the Dao.

The ideas of Daoism contrast with Confucian emphasis on human life. From a Daoist point of view, human culture, laws, and customs seem artificial and structured. The Daoist idea is to achieve real harmony by withdrawing from social structures. Only then can you experience natural rhythms of universe, the Dao.

Soteriology of Daoism

Ideally, the principle of wu-wei or non-action brings one closer to the Dao. One should be like nature which is passive and quiet and follows a natural rhythm.

Practically speaking, however, the three modes of literati Daoism, communal Daoism, and self-cultivation Daoism described above are the most useful way to think about Daoist practices and beliefs. These three modes were established in the third century CE and continue to be the pattern of Daoist practice.

Literati Daoism emphasizes studying the classic texts of Daoism from the Warring States period and later. This form of Daoism is largely intellectual, although its participants see this study as contributing to the peace of the world. Communal Daoism incorporates popular religious beliefs and practices in rituals to support the extended family, and promote the harvest. Rituals that honor the birth date of the local god, and various festivals are also important in communal Daoism. Finally, self-cultivation Daoism uses physical and mental practices of self-restraint and meditation to gain a higher knowledge and to promote personal longevity, even immortality.

These three modes of Daoist activity are an essential structure of Daoism as a religious phenomenon. A literati Daoist who studies Daoist texts relies on communal Daoism when he arranges a funeral service for his deceased parent. And he or she is likely to also practice meditation or dietary restrictions of self- cultivation Daoism. On one level, the goals of these three types of Daoist activity seem different, but to many Chinese they are all part of the same goal of being in harmony with the Dao.